Showing posts with label Biofuel. Show all posts

The Compost Bomb: Peat and Global Warming

Posted by Unknown in , , , , on Sunday, 27 January 2013


(Oil Price) Peat, or turf, is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter. Peat forms in wetland bogs, moors, and peat swamp forests. Peat is harvested as an important source of fuel in certain parts of the world. Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by the presence of a heat source, it smolders. These smoldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer. The rate of global warming could lead to a rapid release of carbon from these peat lands that would then further accelerate global warming. Two recent studies published by the Mathematics Research Institute at the University of Exeter highlight the risk that this 'compost bomb' instability could pose, and calculate the conditions under which it could occur.
Peat fires are emerging as a global threat with significant economic, social and ecological impacts. Recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing more than 50 billion tons of carbon, has contributed to increases in world carbon dioxide levels. Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040.
Peat-Bog
In 1997, it is estimated that peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between 0.81 and 2.57 Gt of carbon; equivalent to 13-40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake of the world's biosphere. These fires may be partially responsible for the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998.
Underground peat fires are fairly common and world wide. In 2008 there was an underground peat fire in North Carolina triggered by a lightning strike and aided by a prolonged drought. In Australia (Victoria province)there has been a peat fire raging for 13 years. In 2010 Russia is suffering from a prolonged peat fire.
A peat fire, like any fire, requires fuel (peat), air, and ignition.
The first Exeter paper by Catherine Luke and Professor Peter Cox describes one of the basic potential ignition sources. When soil microbes decompose organic matter they release heat -- this is why compost heaps are often warmer than the air around them.
The compost bomb instability is a runaway feedback that occurs when the heat is generated by microbes more quickly than it can escape to the atmosphere. This in turn requires that the active decomposing soil layer is thermally-insulated from the atmosphere.
Catherine Luke explains: "The compost bomb instability is most likely to occur in drying organic soils covered by an insulating lichen or moss layer."
The second paper led by Dr Sebastian Wieczorek and Professor Peter Ashwin, also of the University of Exeter, proves there is a dangerous rate of global warming beyond which the compost bomb instability (i.e. ignition or spontaneous combustion occurs) occurs.
Spontaneous combustion occurs when materials self-heat to a temperature high enough to cause them to ignite. Typically, composting materials ignite at temperatures between 150 and 200°C.
As the temperature rises, the speed of temperature increase also rises. For example, heat is generated about 16 times faster at 100°C than at 60°C because the reaction rate approximately doubles with each 10°C rise in temperature.
The Exeter team is now modeling the potential impact of the compost bomb instability on future climate change, including the potential link to the Russian peat land fires.It is also working to identify other rate-dependent tipping points.
By. Andy Soos of Environmental News Network

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Coconut Oil Touted as Alzheimer's Remedy

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An estimated 5.4 million people in the U.S. have been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease and that number is expected to increase exponentially as baby boomer generation enters their golden years.
But for some people, coconut oil has proven to slow the progression of Alzheimer's and may have even prevented it.
One of those people is Steve Newport, whose Alzheimer's has slowed considerably. Some of his symptoms even reversed, thanks to the unlikely treatment prescribed by his wife, Dr. Mary Newport, a physician who runs a neonatology ward at a Tampa, Fla., hospital.
Dr. Newport became determined to help her husband after the severity of his disease was discovered through an Alzheimer's test in which the person being tested is asked to draw a picture of a clock.
"He drew circles and several numbers just in a very random pattern, didn't really look anything like a clock," she said.
"And the doctor pulled me over to the side and said, 'You know, he's actually on the verge of severe Alzheimer's at this point, he's beyond moderate," Dr. Newport recalled.
"So that was very, very devastating news," she said.
Dr. Newport began learning everything she could about her husband's disease.
"It appears to be a type of diabetes of the brain and it's a process that starts happening at least 10 or 20 years before you start having symptoms and it's very similar to type 1 or type 2 diabetes in that you develop a problem with insulin," she explained.



Alternative Brain Fuel
In this case, insulin problems prevent brain cells from accepting glucose, their primary fuel. Without it, they eventually die.
But there is an alternative fuel -- ketones, which cells easily accept. Ketones are metabolized in the liver after you eat medium chain triglicerides, found in coconut oil.
Dr. Newport added coconut oil to her husband Steve's diet. Just two weeks later, he took the clock test again and demonstrated stunning improvement.
"I thought at the time, was it just good luck? Was it a lot of prayer? Was it the coconut oil?" she said. "And I thought, well, we're going to keep the coconut oil going."
Three weeks later, Steve took the clock test a third time and continued to perform better on it.
And it wasn't just intellectually, he also improved emotionally and physically.
"He was not able to run. He was able to run again," she recalled. "He could not read for about a year and a half, but after two or three months he was able to read."
"Instead of being very sluggish, not talking very much in the morning, he would come out in the morning with energy, talkative, and joking, and he could find his water and his utensils," Dr. Newport said.
She documented Steve's success in a book titled, Alzheimer's Disease: What If There Was A Cure?  Dr. Newport received many "thank you" letters from people whose loved ones were suffering from Alzheimer's. Each of the letters claimed their family member was helped after they followed Steve's diet.
Expensive Power Punch
And while coconut oil is encouraging, there's something much more powerful.
A team of biochemists, led by Professor Kieran Clarke at England's Oxford University, have developed a ketone ester that packs a punch ten times greater than coconut oil.
"It reaches quite considerably higher levels," Clarke said. "And you can get whatever levels you want depending on how much you drink."
The problem is, they need millions of dollars to mass produce it.
"It's very expensive. And so we can't make very much of it ourselves," Clarke said. "And what we would like is funding so we could actually scale up and make it."
"But of course there's no real profit in manufacturing stuff like that, and so people really don't want to fund that sort of thing," he said.
Coconut Oil Myths
So until a high potency ketone ester is available to the general public, coconut oil is still a good ketone source.
Just make sure it's pure, in other words, non-hydrogenated. Avoid any hydrogenated oil, including coconut oil, because hydrogenated oils are the same thing as dangerous trans fats. Check the list of ingredients for the word, "hydrogenated."
Some people are afraid to eat coconut oil because they think it's bad for your heart. But it's actually very healthy.
Dr. Beverly Teter is a lipid biochemist researcher at the University of Maryland and an expert in the area of dietary fat.
She said that years ago, coconut oil was criticized for raising cholesterol. But scientists have since learned there are two kinds of cholesterol -- LDL, the bad kind, and HDL, which is very good for you. HDL, the good cholesterol, is the kind that coconut oil raises.
"So they put out the message that it increased serum cholesterol," Teter explained. "But the truth of the matter is, it was helping the profile of the serum cholesterol."
"That never has been corrected in the public press, and I think that's the reason people have misconceptions about it," she said.
Defense against Disease
Not only does coconut oil improve cholesterol levels, Teter said the way it helps the brains of some Alzheimer's patients can even be extended to people with Parkinson's disease, ALS , epilepsy, dementia, even schizophrenia and autism.
Coconut oil also kills bacteria, making it a natural antibiotic without the negative side effects. Teter said because of that, it also helps defend against viruses like HIV and herpes.
"The coconut oil tends to keep the bacteria down so that if you're assaulted with a virus, your immune system can concentrate on the virus. It doesn't have to concentrate on 27 other bacteria that day," she explained.
As always, consult your doctor before making any dietary changes and ask about the addition of coconut oil to your diet.

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How Farm Waste Provides Clean Energy for Homes | A Project By UNEP

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A project backed by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is working to make clean energy a reality for households in a rural region of Pakistan.

Sanghar, a farming district in Sindh province in east-central Pakistan, is home to nearly two million people. Wheat, cotton, sugar cane, rice and maize are grown here, providing livelihoods and food for local communities.
In the villages and towns of the district, access to reliable sources of energy is difficult. Indeed, in households all over Sanghar, women prepare meals and heat water by burning wood or biomass in rudimentary stoves that release choking, black smoke.
Now a new project backed by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is working to make clean energy a reality for local households.
Realizing that the district was a rich source of agricultural waste, UNEP's International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC), based in Japan, began working on a project to convert agricultural waste left in the fields into clean, sustainable energy.
As a first step, the IETC worked with the Mehran University of Engineering and Technology in Jamshoro to quantify the amount of agricultural waste in the district. A survey found that 2.5 million tonnes of waste ? wheat and canola straw, cotton stalks, cotton gin waste, sugarcane tops, bagasse, rice straw and husks, and banana plant ? was produced in the district, although not all was available for conversion into energy.
A subsequent calculation found that the energy potential of the available waste was equivalent to 1.07 million tonnes of fire wood, or 910 million units of electricity (with a conversion efficiency rate of 20 per cent). If this energy potential was fully realised, the converted waste could meet the energy demands of roughly 400,000 households (at 2400 units per household).
Further research was done to determine how agricultural waste was managed and used, to avoid future conflicts. For instance, it was learnt that 20 per cent of sugarcane tops was being fed to animals, but 80 per cent was being burnt in the fields, along with the entire quantity of banana plant waste and about 70-80 per cent of rice straw. These materials could therefore be used for energy conversion without impacting on food supplies or other needs.
The next step was to decide which technology to use. Several were considered, but after careful analysis a biogas plant was selected, as it had the twin benefits of being able to supply clean fuel (biogas) to surrounding households and produce a good supply of compost, which could be used as fertilizer. A site was chosen at the back of the Sanghar Sugar Mills, which agreed to provide the land and funds to build the plant.
Built at a cost of two million rupees (about US$ 23,000), the biogas plant opened on 1 August 2011. It is producing 50 cubic metres of biogas a day, using 400 kilograms a day of agriculture waste. As well, it produces 200 kilograms a day of liquid fertilizer and 150 kilograms a day of solid fertilizer.
The biogas produced is enough to provide energy to about 20 households, putting to good use a resource that would otherwise have gone to waste.
For more information, please contact:
Surya Prakash Chandak, Senior Programme Officer, UNEP International Environmental Technology Centre, Email: surya.chandak@unep.org
Moira O'Brien-Malone, UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, Tel: +33 1 44 37 76 12, Email: moira.obrien-malone@unep.org

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Pakistan's Ambiguous Policies about Cassava Planta

Posted by Unknown in , , on Saturday, 26 January 2013

Cassava Plantation and Cassava Roots
The government needs to clarify its policy direction on whether or how to promote cassava plantation. Otherwise, cassava planters will be vulnerable to the changing government policies.
For instance, while the Yingluck government said it would go ahead with its populist policies to benefit the farmers, cassava planters have felt anegative side to these policies. Local planters have been directly affected by the reduction in diesel pricesbecause cassava produce is used in ethanol production.
Over the past four months, local planters have suffered from changing domestic policy. The lower prices of diesel and benzene made gasohol less attractive because of the lower price margin. Drivers shifted back to diesel and benzene until the Yingluck government later announced it was cutting the gasohol price.Cassava planters bore the brunt of drastic changes in the government`s policy.
From the middle of 2010 to early last year, the cassava prices rose sharply because the previous government set a policy to promote the use of gasohol by keeping gasohol prices lower than traditional fuel.
Many farmers convertedtheir farms to cassava plantations in the hope of earning more from this economic crop. The price of cassava, howev-er, saw a declining trend from the middle of last year partly because gasohol was not competitive in terms of price, compared to traditional fuel. 
The government should set a clear policy on planting cassava, whether it will continue to promote biodiesel, and how it would help ease the impact on local farmers of the liberalisation of agricultural imports.
The Dawn

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Introduction to Organic Farming

Posted by Unknown in , on Friday, 25 January 2013

Defining “Organic”
Organic farming is a method of crop and livestock production that involves much more than choosing not to use pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, antibiotics and growth hormones.

Organic production is a holistic system designed to optimize the productivity and fitness of diverse communities within the agro-ecosystem, including soil organisms, plants, livestock and people. The principal goal of organic production is to develop enterprises that are sustainable and harmonious with the environment.

The general principles of organic production, from the Canadian Organic Standards (2006), include the following:
  • protect the environment, minimize soil degradation and erosion, decrease pollution, optimize biological productivity and promote a sound state of health
  • maintain long-term soil fertility by optimizing conditions for biological activity within the soil
  • maintain biological diversity within the system
  • recycle materials and resources to the greatest extent possible within the enterprise
  • provide attentive care that promotes the health and meets the behavioural needs of livestock
  • prepare organic products, emphasizing careful processing, and handling methods in order to maintain the organic integrity and vital qualities of the products at all stages of production
  • rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems
Organic farming promotes the use of crop rotations and cover crops, and encourages balanced host/predator relationships. Organic residues and nutrients produced on the farm are recycled back to the soil. Cover crops and composted manure are used to maintain soil organic matter and fertility. Preventative insect and disease control methods are practiced, including crop rotation, improved genetics and resistant varieties. Integrated pest and weed management, and soil conservation systems are valuable tools on an organic farm. Organically approved pesticides include “natural” or other pest management products included in the Permitted Substances List (PSL) of the organic standards. The Permitted Substances List identifies substances permitted for use as a pesticides in organic agriculture. All grains, forages and protein supplements fed to livestock must be organically grown.

The organic standards generally prohibit products of genetic engineering and animal cloning, synthetic pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, synthetic drugs, synthetic food processing aids and ingredients, and ionizing radiation. Prohibited products and practices must not be used on certified organic farms for at least three years prior to harvest of the certified organic products. Livestock must be raised organically and fed 100 per cent organic feed ingredients.

Organic farming presents many challenges. Some crops are more challenging than others to grow organically; however, nearly every commodity can be produced organically.

Growth of Organic Agriculture

The world market for organic food has grown for over 15 years. Growth of retail sales in North America is predicted to be 10 per cent to 20 per cent per year during the next few years. The retail organic food market in Canada is estimated at over $1.5 billion in 2008 and $22.9 billion in the U.S.A. in 2008. It is estimated that imported products make up over 70 per cent of the organic food consumed in Canada. Canada also exports many organic products, particularly soybeans and grains.

The Canadian Organic Farmers reported 669 certified organic farms in Ontario in 2007 with over 100,000 certified organic acres of crops and pasture land. This is an annual increase of approximately 10 per cent per year in recent years. About 48 per cent of the organic cropland is seeded to grains, 40 per cent produces hay and pasture and about five per cent for certified organic fruits and vegetables. Livestock production (meat, dairy and eggs) has also been steadily increasing in recent years.

Why Farm Organically?

The main reasons farmers state for wanting to farm organically are their concerns for the environment and about working with agricultural chemicals in conventional farming systems. There is also an issue with the amount of energy used in agriculture, since many farm chemicals require energy intensive manufacturing processes that rely heavily on fossil fuels. Organic farmers find their method of farming to be profitable and personally rewarding.

Why Buy Organic?

Consumers purchase organic foods for many different reasons. Many want to buy food products that are free of chemical pesticides or grown without conventional fertilizers. Some simply like to try new and different products. Product taste, concerns for the environment and the desire to avoid foods from genetically engineered organisms are among the many other reasons some consumers prefer to buy organic food products. In 2007 it was estimated that over 60 per cent of consumers bought some organic products. Approximately five per cent of consumers are considered to be core organic consumers who buy up to 50 per cent of all organic food.

"What is "Certified Organic"?

“Certified organic” is a term given to products produced according to organic standards as certified by one of the certifying bodies. There are several certification bodies operating in Ontario. A grower wishing to be certified organic must apply to a certification body requesting an independent inspection of their farm to verify that the farm meets the organic standards. Farmers, processors and traders are each required to maintain the organic integrity of the product and to maintain a document trail for audit purposes. Products from certified organic farms are labelled and promoted as “certified organic.”

In June 2009, the Canadian government introduced regulations to regulate organic products. Under these regulations the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) oversees organic certification, including accreditation of Conformity Verification Bodies (CVBs) and Certification Bodies (CBs). This regulation also references the Canadian Organic Production Systems General Principles and Management Standards (CAN/CGSB-32.310) and the Organic Production Systems – Permitted Substances List that were revised in 2009.

The Canadian organic regulations require certification to these standards for agricultural products represented as organic in import, export and inter-provincial trade, or that bear the federal organic agricultural product legend or logo. (Figure 1) Products that are both produced and sold within a province are regulated by provincial organic regulations where they exist (Quebec, British Columbia and Manitoba).
 
Canadian Agriculture Product Legend (logo)
The federal regulations apply to most food and drink intended for human consumption and food intended to feed livestock, including agricultural crops used for those purposes. They also apply to the cultivation of plants. The regulations do not apply to organic claims for other products such as aquaculture products, cosmetics, fibres, health care products, fertilizers, pet food, lawn care, etc.

Food products labelled as organic must contain at least 95 per cent organic ingredients (not including water and salt) and can bear the Canada Organic logo. Multi-ingredient products with 70 per cent to 95 per cent organic product content may be labelled with the declaration: “% organic ingredients”. Multi-ingredient products with less than 70 per cent organic content may identify the organic components in the ingredient list.

Exporting Organic Materials

Exported products must meet the requirements of the importing country or standards negotiated through international equivalency agreements. Products exported to the U.S. must meet the terms of the Canada-U.S. equivalency agreement signed in June 2009. All products that meet the requirements of the Canada Organic Regime can be exported to the U.S. with the exception that agricultural products derived from animals treated with antibiotics cannot not be marketed as organic in the U.S. Canada is also exploring other international equivalency agreements with other trading partners to enhance trade opportunities for export and to assure the organic integrity of imported products.

Organic Certification

When considering organic certification, know the requirements and accreditation(s) needed in the marketplace where your products will be sold. When comparing certification bodies, make sure they have the certification requirements and accreditations needed to meet market requirements. As a minimum certification bodies should be accredited under the Canadian Organic Products Regulations. Some markets may require accreditation or equivalency agreements with countries in the European Union, or with the Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS), Bio-Swisse or other international organic certification systems. As Canada develops international equivalency agreements the need for the certification body to have these international accreditations will diminish.

For more information on certification and links to Canadian regulations and standards see the Organic Agricultural section of the OMAFRA website at www.ontario.ca/organic or the CFIA website at www.inspection.gc.ca.

The Transition Period

The first few years of organic production are the hardest. Organic standards require that organic lands must be managed using organic practices for 36 months prior to harvest of the first certified organic crop. This is called the “transition period” when both the soil and the manager adjust to the new system. Insect and weed populations also adjust during this time.

Cash flow can be a problem due to the unstable nature of the yields and the fact that price premiums are frequently not available during the transition since products do not qualify as “certified organic.” For this reason, some farmers choose to convert to organic production in stages. Crops with a low cost of production are commonly grown during the transition period to help manage this risk.

Carefully prepare a plan for conversion. Try 10 per cent to 20 per cent the first year. Pick one of the best fields to start with and expand organic acreage as knowledge and confidence are gained. It may take five to 10 years to become totally organic, but a long term approach is often more successful than a rapid conversion, especially when financial constraints are considered. Parallel production (producing both organic and conventional versions of the same crop or livestock product) is not allowed. Use good sanitation, visually different varieties, individual animal identification and other systems to maintain separation and integrity of the organic and conventional products. Good records are essential.

Successful Organic Farming

In organic production, farmers choose not to use some of the convenient chemical tools available to other farmers. Design and management of the production system are critical to the success of the farm. Select enterprises that complement each other and choose crop rotation and tillage practices to avoid or reduce crop problems.

Yields of each organic crop vary, depending on the success of the manager. During the transition from conventional to organic, production yields are lower than conventional levels, but after a three to five year transition period the organic yields typically increase.

Cereal and forage crops can be grown organically relatively easily to due to relatively low pest pressures and nutrient requirements. Soybeans also perform well but weeds can be a challenge. Corn is being grown more frequently on organic farms but careful management of weed control and fertility is needed. Meeting nitrogen requirements is particularly challenging. Corn can be successfully grown after forage legumes or if manure has been applied. Markets for organic feed grains have been strong in recent years.

The adoption of genetically engineered (GMO) corn and canola varieties on conventional farms has created the issue of buffer zones or isolation distance for organic corn and canola crops. Farmers producing corn and canola organically are required to manage the risks of GMO contamination in order to produce a “GMO-free” product. The main strategy to manage this risk is through appropriate buffer distances between organic and genetically engineered crops. Cross-pollinated crops such as corn and canola require much greater isolation distance than self-pollinated crops such as soybeans or cereals.

Fruit and vegetable crops present greater challenges depending on the crop. Some managers have been very successful, while other farms with the same crop have had significant problems. Certain insect or disease pests are more serious in some regions than in others. Some pest problems are difficult to manage with organic methods. This is less of an issue as more organically approved biopesticides become available. Marketable yields of organic horticultural crops are usually below non-organic crop yields. The yield reduction varies by crop and farm. Some organic producers have added value to their products with on-farm processing. An example is to make jams, jellies, juice, etc. using products that do not meet fresh market standards.

Livestock products can also be produced organically. In recent years, organic dairy products have become popular. There is an expanding market for organic meat products. Animals must be fed only organic feeds (except under exceptional circumstances). Feed must not contain mammalian, avian or fish by-products. All genetically engineered organisms and substances are prohibited. Antibiotics, growth hormones and insecticides are generally prohibited. If an animal becomes ill and antibiotics are necessary for recovery, they should be administered. The animal must then be segregated from the organic livestock herd and cannot be sold for organic meat products. Vaccinations are permitted when diseases cannot be controlled by other means. Artificial insemination is permitted. Always check with your certification body to determine if a product or technique is allowed in the Permitted Substances List and the organic standards. Organic production must also respect all other federal, provincial and municipal regulations.

Organic produce can usually qualify for higher prices than non-organic products. These premiums vary with the crop and may depend on whether you are dealing with a processor, wholesaler, retailer or directly with the consumer. Prices and premiums are negotiated between buyer and seller and will fluctuate with local and global supply and demand.

Higher prices offset the higher production costs (per unit of production) of management, labour, and for lower farm yields. These differences vary with commodity. Some experienced field crop producers, particularly of cereals and forages, report very little change in yield while in some horticultural crops such as tree fruits, significant differences in marketable yield have been observed. There may also be higher marketing costs to develop markets where there is less infrastructure than for conventional commodities. 
Currently, demand is greater than supply for most organic products.

Summary

Organic farming can be a viable alternative production method for farmers, but there are many challenges. One key to success is being open to alternative organic approaches to solving production problems. Determine the cause of the problem, and assess strategies to avoid or reduce the long term problem rather than a short term fix for it.

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Buffalo: Black gold of Pakistan

Posted by Unknown in , , , , , on Monday, 10 September 2012


Abstract
Buffalo is playing a leading role in the national economy by producing milk, meat and draught power. Out of total milk produced in the country, buffalo contributes about 68 %, followed by cattle (27%) and sheep/goat/camel (5%). Due to high fat contents of buffalo milk, it is the most preferred species in Pakistan. However, there are certain problems related to this species such as late age of maturity, long calving interval and silent heat. These problems can be solved through efficient management. At present, there are 26.3 million buffaloes in Pakistan, having a good production potential. In Pakistan, buffaloes not only fulfill the protein requirements of the human population by milk and meat, but are also have a great share in providing the traction power for various agricultural purposes. No doubt, we have the best breeds (Nili Ravi and Kundi) at world level but they are not producing according to their potential, mainly due to mis- management. In other parts of the world most of the buffalo population is swamp type. They are mainly used for draught purposes. Despite of these problems, there is room for improvement. Due to their versatile qualities they are rightly called as Black Gold of Pakistan.

The aim of this review paper is to point out the production performance of Pakistani buffaloes with a little touch to exotic buffaloes and the suggestions/recommendations to improve their performance to produce more.

Key words: Buffalo, breeds, milk, Pakistan, problems, suggestions



Introduction
Pakistan is primarily an agricultural based country and Livestock plays a pivotal role in its economy by providing essential items of human diet in the form of milk, meat and eggs etc. At present, livestock is contributing about 46.0 per cent of agricultural value added and 10.6 per cent to the GDP (Economic Survey of Pakistan. 2005). Foreign earnings of the livestock sector exceed 35 billion rupees annually. It also provides wool, hair, hide, skin, blood, bones, and farmyard manure and is a principal source of motive power for cultivation and rural transport. The role of livestock in rural economy may be assessed by the fact that 30 to 35 million of the total rural population is engaged in livestock related activities, having household holdings of 2 to 3 cattle / buffalo and 5 to 6 sheep and goats per family, deriving 30 to 40 per cent of income from it (Bilal and Ahmad 2004). These animals produced 29.472 million tones of milk during 2004-05 besides providing 1.115 million tones of beef and 0.740 million tones of mutton (Economic Survey of Pakistan 2004-05). The role of Livestock is also important to convert crop residues, agricultural by-products and wastes into milk, meat, wool, hair etc. In this regard especially buffalo can efficiently convert poor roughages into valuable products, like meat and milk. Otherwise these by-products and wastes would lead to an increase in environmental pollution, which is the most serious issue at present.

A milch buffalo is generally looked upon as a prestigious possession of the family, as the number of buffaloes kept by farmers determines the wealth and status in the society. To the rural poor and landless families, in house buffalo farming provides the only means of subsistence. During the last two decades there has been a growing awareness to develop buffalo-based dairy and meat industry in the near and far eastern regions. (Bilal 2004)

The total milk produce in the country is not fulfilling the human needs. The most important reason for this shortening is that, human population is increasing day by day (at the rate of 3 % annually), but the milk production is not increasing at the same pace. No doubt, milk production has shown an increasing trend over last several years, but this increase in milk production is due to increase in total number of milk producing animals and is not due to increase in per animal production. Presently, Pakistan is importing dry milk and products of worth Rs. 1.1 billion, which is a burden on our economy. The production per animal is less due to several reasons, some of them include, low genetic potential of our animals; late age of maturity; shortage of feed and fodder; high disease incidence; unorganized marketing system and farming on traditional lines (Bilal and Ahmad 2004). Beside of the fact that, when milk is compared with major crops, it is evident that the value of milk is more than the combined value of wheat and cotton and twice that of sugar cane and rice combined. (Bilal and Sajid 2005)

An overview of world buffalo
Important buffalo producing Asiatic countries are India, China, Pakistan, Thailand, Phillipines, Indonesia, Burma, Ceylon and Egypt. Milch buffaloes are, however, mostly found in Pakistan, India and Egypt. In other countries they are swamp type, which are primarily used as draft and meat animals.

World buffalo population has reached to 130 million (FAOSTAT 2005). Of all domestic animals, Asian buffalo holds the greatest promise and potential for production (Cockrill 1994). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO 2000) has rightly termed buffalo as an important but 'an asset undervalued'. The World buffalo population increased by 91% between 1961 and 2001. The buffalo in Far East is called as swamp buffalo and mainly used as a draft animal in paddy crops. This type of buffalo is of small size with compact body and having straight horns. While Mediterranean buffaloes found in Italy, the Balkan states, Turkey and in some part of Russia. This type of buffalo is also of small size giving 1400-1500 liters milk per lactation. Italian buffalo cheese is very much liked by the European people. Buffalo is also found in Iraq, Iran Azerbaijan and in the other countries of Middle East. But the major part of the said buffalo is found in Egypt followed by Iraq. This buffalo is a dual purpose animal mainly used for milk and meat following by traction in the fields. Major proportion of feral buffalo is found in Australia. This animal is mainly found in the forests and not yet domesticated. The water buffalo plays a vital role in the agricultural economy of the South-Asian and Far-Eastern countries, where nearly 96 % of its total population in the world is concentrated. In this vast, sprawling region, and in spite of the changing agrarian patterns, it continues to remain the major source of tractive power, milk and meat. At world level India ranked number one in buffalo milk production, followed by Pakistan, China and Egypt, respectively. However, Albania is the country producing only seven thousand tons of buffalo milk (Table 1).

Table 1. Buffalo milk producing countries
Rank
Countries
Production, MT
1
India
50.0
2
Pakistan
19.9
3
China
2.70
4
Egypt
2.55
5
Nepal
0.83
6
Iran
0.235
7
Italy
0.125
8
Myanmar
0.116
9
Sri Lanka
0.068
10
Turkey
0.048
11
Viet Nam
0.031
12
Iraq
0.0276
13
Bangladesh
0.0228
14
Malaysia
0.0073
15
Bulgaria
0.0045
16
Syrian Arab Republic
0.0015
17
Bhutan
0.0003
18
Greece
0.000045
19
Brunei Darussalam
0.000040
20
Albania
0.000007
Source: FAOStat 2005




Buffalo in the country
South Asia has five groups (Murrah, Gujrati, Utherperdesh, Central Indian and South Indian) of buffalo breeds. Of these groups the Murrah group (Nili, Ravi, Nili-Ravi, Kundi and Murra) is the leading one, both in the sense of meat and milk production. Nili-Ravi is the best performing animal of this group, producing more milk than the other breeds of the world (2500 liter per lactation) (Bilal, M.Q 2004) Pakistan is fortunate enough in having two best sub-tropical breeds of buffaloes such as Nili-Ravi and Kundi. The best buffalo animals are found in the canal fed areas of the country, where abundant fodder supply and crops by products are available. Here is an overview of the buffalo milk production compared with other species. In Pakistan buffalo is the major dairy animal contributing maximum in total milk production followed by cattle and sheep/goat, respectively. In last fourteen years a significant increase in total milk production (13.2 to 29.5 Million tons) occurred (Table 2). This increase may be attributed mainly to increase in the population of buffaloes, cattle, goat, sheep and partially to per head milk production increase due to adoption of modern husbandry practices by the farmers at a very limited scale.

Table 2. Share of various species in total milk production (Million tons) in Pakistan
Fiscal year
Buffalo
Cattle
Goat
Sheep
Total
% increase
1991-92
9.50
3.03
0.566
0.042
13.2

1992-93
10.0
3.14
0.602
0.044
13.9
4.91
1993-94
10.6
3.25
0.64
0.047
14.6
5.18
1994-95
11.2
3.37
0.68
0.049
15.3
5.17
1995-96
14.9
7.46
0.509
0.03
22.9
50.2
1996-97
15.4
7.6
0.527
0.03
23.6
2.65
1997-98
15.9
7.74
0.546
0.03
24.2
2.69
1998-99
16.4
7.89
0.565
0.03
24.9
2.73
1999-2000
16.9
8.03
0.586
0.031
25.6
2.76
2000-01
17.5
8.19
0.607
0.031
26.3
2.8
2001-02
18.0
8.35
0.652
0.031
27.0
2.93
2002-03
18.6
8.51
0.652
0.031
27.8
2.79
2003-04
19.2
8.75
0.669
0.031
28.6
2.92
2004-05
19.7
9.00
0.729
0.031
29.5
2.96
Source: Economic Survey of Pakistan 2004-05




Trends in buffalo population
Buffalo is the most valuable animal and is being highly liked by the people of the sub-continent. Buffalo milk is preferred more than the cow's milk therefore the demand for buffalo milk is ever increasing. The modernization and economic uplifting due to industrialization and education has also increased the country milk demand especially in the big cities. Therefore the bhens colonies (buffalo colonies) came into being near the metropolis of Pakistan and India. Karachi and Bombay are the best examples. Due to the ever increasing demand in the milk especially the buffalo milk for higher butterfat contents and developed taste of the consumer a big shift of the buffalo is coming in being to fulfill such an increasing demand. Table 3 indicates that buffalo population increased from 17.8 million to 26.3 million during 1990 to 2005.

Table 3. Age and purpose wise buffalo population (million no.)
Fiscal Years
Buffalos
Bulls
3>
Breeding Bulls
Working Bulls
Buffalos
3>
Lactating
Buffalo
Dry
Buffalo
Buffalo not
yet calved
1990-91
17.8
2.88
0.178
0.142
3.86
6.85
2.13
1.73
1991-92
18.3
2.96
0.183
0.146
3.97
7.04
2.19
1.77
1992-93
18.7
3.02
0.187
0.149
4.05
7.19
2.24
1.81
1993-94
19.2
3.11
0.192
0.153
4.16
7.39
2.30
1.86
1994-95
19.7
3.19
0.197
0.157
4.27
7.58
2.36
1.91
1995-96
20.3
3.28
0.203
0.162
4.40
7.81
2.43
1.97
1996-97
20.8
3.36
0.208
0.166
4.51
8.00
2.49
2.02
1997-98
21.4
3.46
0.214
0.171
4.64
8.23
2.56
2.07
1998-99
22.0
3.56
0.220
0.176
4.77
8.47
2.64
2.13
1999-00
22.7
3.67
0.227
0.181
4.92
8.73
2.72
2.20
2000-01
23.3
3.77
0.233
0.186
5.05
8.97
2.79
2.26
2001-02
24.0
3.88
0.240
0.192
5.20
9.24
2.88
2.32
2002-03
24. 8
4.01
0.248
0.198
5.38
9.54
2.97
2.40
2003-04
25.5
4.13
0.255
0.204
5.53
9.81
3.06
2.47
2004-05
26.3
4.26
0.263
0.210
5.70
10.1
3.15
2.55
Source: Economic survey of Pakistan




Following are the main and elite buffalo breeds, along with their home tract and characteristics.

Nili-Ravi
Home Tract of this breed ranges in the belt between the Sutluj and Ravi rivers of the Punjab province. Actually Nili and Ravi were two different breeds long before, but due to the passage of time and with intensive crossbreeding the two breeds converted into single breed. Some typical specimen of Nili and Ravi are still found in the rural areas of the province. The main areas where this breed is found are Lahore, Sheikhupura, Faisalabad, Okara, Sahiwal, Multan, Bahawalpur and Bahwalnagar. However due to its good dairy characteristics, it is now found in all over the country and even imported by several other countries of the world.

The body of the animal is massive and wedge shaped with black color but often has white markings on the muzzle, lower parts of the legs, fore head and switch of the tail. Due to these typical markings, animals of this breed are often termed as Punjkalian. They have small curly horns, wall eye and a large, strong udder. Males attain maturity at 30 months of age and female at 36 months of age. Milk yield is 1800-2500 liters with a 6.5% fat. Due to these remarkable milk production abilities it is called as The Black Gold of Asia. Body weight of the males reaches to 550-650 Kg; while that of the females is 350-450Kg. (Shah 1994).

Kundi
Home Tract of the Kundi breed of Buffalo lies on the both sides of river Indus from Kashmore to Shah Bandar (Sindh). These are found mainly in Haiderabad, Karachi, Larkana, Nawabshah, Mirpurkhas and other parts of Sind, in Quetta and adjoining areas of Balochistan province. Physical Characteristics of the breed include the massive jet-black body, horns are broad at the base and taper up ward and in ward (fish hook shape), broad fore head, short neck and medium sized ears. The head is relatively small. The forehead is broad and somewhat prominent.

Animals with white markings on the forehead are discriminated against in the showing. Dewlap is absent. Legs are short and straight. The udder is moderately developed and is well tucked up. Typical Kundi animals are seen only in remote villages. Production Parameters are described as the males reach to maturity at the age of 30 months and the females at 36 months of age. Milk yield of the breed is 1700-2200 liters with a 6% butterfat. Body weight of the male is 500-600Kg, while 300to 400 Kg of the female. (Shah 1994).



Milk production
It would be seen that the Pakistani buffaloes are the best milch buffaloes in the world. There is considerable genetic variation, which could be judiciously exploited by selective breeding for higher production. At present there is no milk recording organization in Pakistan for the buffaloes and as such several good producing animals are likely to be overlooked. Nili-Ravi breed has the potential to produce more as compared to Kundi as it matures earlier, has shorter calving interval and dry period (Table 4).

Table 4. Production performance of buffalo breeds
Traits
Breeds
Nili Ravi
Kundi
Age at first calving, days
1390
1640
Lactation period, days
322
325
Lactation yield, liters
2430
2315
Average milk /day, liters
7.5
6.8
Calving interval, days
512
551
Dry period, days
190
226
Source: Haq 2000




Pakistani buffaloes have the potential of giving over 5000 liters of milk per lactation through efficient breeding, feeding and health care program. Nili Ravi is the best breed at national and international level in terms of its production potential. No doubt, average milk yield per lactation is 2430 liters but such animals of Nili Ravi breed are also available, producing 3000-5000 liters/lactation.

Milk and meat products form integral parts of human diet and account for 70 per cent of animal protein intake. The availability of milk is relatively high in Pakistan when compared to other regional countries. Pakistan produced 29.472 million tones of milk and 1.115 million tones of beef during 2004-2005. The population of the country was 148.72 million (Economic Survey. 2004-2005). Out of the total milk produced, 68 per cent is contributed by buffaloes, 27 per cent by cows and the remaining 5 per cent by sheep, goats and camels. Keeping in mind such a big contribution in the country's milk production, buffalo becomes the most important animal of the country.
Figure 1. Buffalo milk vs total milk production




On the whole milk production basis, keeping in view the present population 192.46 liter milk is available per capita per annum. (The milk availability was calculated by dividing the produced milk of the country (28.624 million tonnes) by the total human population (148.72 million) of the country). A hypothesis is there that 20% of the milk is fed to the calves (5.724 mil ton), therefore 22.900 mil ton milk remains and only 153.98 liter milk /capita/annum is available. Generally it is said that 300 liters milk/capita is annually needed. According to the requirement Pakistani citizen is deficient of 146 liters milk per annum.

Pakistan is the fifth largest milk producing country in the world. (EC, United States, India, Russian Fed and then Pakistan). The largest number (over 80%) of buffaloes in Pakistan calve during the period of July to December. Thus the buffalo dairymen in the country are confronted with the problem of seasonal surplus milk which is usually converted into various products and short supply during the slack season. Daily yield of the lactating buffaloes in Pakistan may be as low as 2-2.5 kg in a poor village animal and as high as 20.0 kg on a well managed farm. Buffalo milk is much richer than cow's milk with an average butterfat content of over 7%. The SNF content is around 9-10.5 % and is generally slight higher than that of cow's milk. The milk is very popular throughout the country and sells at a higher price than cow's milk due to its high fat and solid contents. The milk provides the basis for dairy produce such as ghee, dahi, butter, milk powder and baby food. (Banerjee.1983). Viscosity of buffalo milk is 2.04 as compare to that of cow milk, which is 1.86 only. The average fat globule size of buffalo milk is large than that of cow milk (Table 5).

Table 5. Physio-chemical constants of milk
Parameters
Buffaloes
Cows
Density at 20 °C
1.02
1.02
Viscosity
2.04
1.86
Refractive index
1.345
1.33
Specific refractive index
0.206
0.205
Surface tension, dynes/cm
55.4
55.9
Acidity, %
0.13
0.15
pH
6.7
6.6
Freezing point depression
0.560
0.570
Average size of fat globules, micron
5.01
3.85
Number of fat globules, million/mm3
3.2
2.96
Phosphate activity, units/100
28
82
Fluorescence under UV light
Greenish yellow
Pale bluish
Source: Eckles et al 2001




The colour of buffalo milk is different from that of cow under UV fluorescent light (buffalo milk greenish yellow and that of cow is pale bluish). The buffalo milk has added value as it has low cholesterol and high calcium levels as compare to other species (Table 6).

Table 6. Buffalo milk composition compare to others
Constituents
Cow
Goat
Sheep
Buffalo
Protein, gm/100gm
3.2
3.1
5.4
4.5
Fat, gm/100 gm
3.9
3.5
6.0
8.0
Carbohydrate, gm/100gm
4.8
4.4
5.1
4.9
Energy, K cal
66
60
95
110
Energy, K J
275
253
396
463
Sugars (Lactose), gm/100gm
4.8
4.4
5.1
4.9
Fatty Acids:




Saturated,gm/100gm
2.4
2.3
3.8
4.2
Monounsaturated, gm/100gm
1.1
0.8
1.5
1.7
Polyunsaturated, gm/100gm
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.2
Cholesterol, mg/100gm
14
10
11
8
Calcium, IU
120
100
170
195
Source: Eckles et al 2001




Buffalo Milk also contains high levels of the natural antioxidant Tocopherol. Peroxidase activity is normally 2-4 times that of cow's milk. An unfortunate sign of the times is the growing number of people who suffer from cow's milk allergy (CMA).

Fortunately this is not the case with Buffalo milk which is suitable for many suffer from CMA. The high milk solids of Buffalo milk not only make it ideal for processing into superb dairy products but also contribute to significant energy savings in conducting that process. Yogurts are natural thick set without recourse to adding addition milk proteins or gelling agents as with lesser milks. Unlike the modern dairy cow the buffalo can thrive without the need to use high levels of concentrated feed. Grass, clover and straw make up the bulk of a buffaloes diet. No bone meals, fish meals or genetically modified feeds are ever fed to our buffalo.

Buffalo meat production
Buffaloes are kept primarily for milk production in Pakistan. The males and dry buffaloes are used for work in carts and various agricultural operations. The adult animals are normally slaughtered when they are un-economical for milk production or work. As compare to cow calves, the buffalo calves have higher live weight at birth, show faster growth and can utilize low quality fodder more efficiently. The average gain in live weight per day is 1.87 lb up to one year and 1.46 lb up to two years of age. It may incidentally be pointed out that this gain is under ordinary conditions of feeding and management. They were not specifically raised for beef production. If fed on balanced economical rations and properly cared for, a daily gain in wt. of 2.25 lb in healthy male calves would not be difficult to achieve.

In Balochistan and North Western Frontier Province (NWFP) buffalo meat is preferred to the cattle beef , as it is considered to be free of disease due to buffalo water preference( buffalo swims in water and the diseases are washed). With proper fattening practice of male for beef can make the buffalo meat industry a valuable meat business inside and outside the country. We can fulfill the ever increasing meat demand inside the country and can earn a handful foreign exchange by exporting buffalo meat as free of mad cow disease (BSE). But the current situation is not appreciable with respect to the buffalo meat production. Almost 50 % of the male calves die during the first week of their life. The remainders are mostly sold to the butchers at one week of age to cash more and more milk for harvesting the higher prices of the milk. If some male calves remain alive and not sold to the butcher even then they remain weak and emaciated due to milk deficiency in the early life and malnutrition in the rest of life. Buffalo growth rate is compatible with other exotic cattle breeds.

Buffalo meat is very popular in most buffalo loving countries although it comes from culled animals or surplus males. Of 242 630 374 tonnes total world meat, 3 089 875 tonnes comes from buffalo (FAOSTAT 2003). A Swamp buffalo with 592 kg average live weight yields 277 kg carcass and 215 kg meat (Thu et al 1995). Calves slaughtered at 18 months of age have dressing percentage of 50. Eating poor quality roughage, buffalo grow faster than cattle because of their better digestibility (Sebastian et al 1970). The cost of fattening per kg bodyweight is therefore much lower for buffalo than cattle (Chantalakhana 2001). The 'Landhi Cattle Colony' of Pakistan has the world's biggest concentration with approximately 250 000 buffalo/cattle (Younas and Yaqoob 2002). Buffalo meat has little cholesterol as compared to the cattle beef. The color of the buffalo meat is slightly dark reddish with comparison to the cattle beef.

The buffalo meat is of good quality as compared to the cattle beef because of the low cholesterol. Therefore it may be preferred over the cattle beef for the cholesterol sensitive people. Meat of the buffalo is free from the worries of BSE and therefore may be recommended for export to the Gulf countries, as the Gulf countries have banned the import of the European beef because of the contamination with the BSE. Buffalo milk is very white and beautifully smooth. It is significantly lower in cholesterol and higher in calcium than cows, sheep or goat milks. Buffalo milk has 43% less cholesterol than cow's milk on the basis of per gram butterfat basis. It has 58% and 40% more calcium and protein than cow's milk respectively. In addition to the significant cholesterol and calcium benefits Buffalo Milk is also a rich source of iron, phosphorus, vitamin A and of course protein.

Buffalo meat is popular in a number of developing countries including Pakistan. In general the meat is richer in protein in comparison to meat of beef. Meat from much elderly animals have a poor flavor, while from young ones, it is lean, tender, less fatty, palatable and considered a delicacy. Buffalo meat contains white fat as the beta carotene (a precursor of vitamin A), which is golden yellow in color, is fully converted into vitamin A, which is colorless. The crude protein level of buffalo meat is 20.2 %, which is higher as compare to that of cow meat as indicated in table 7.

Table 7. Chemical composition of buffalo meat as compared with that of cattle
Characteristics
Cattle
Buffalo
Moisture, %
76.2
74.4
Crude protein, %
19.2
20.2
E E, %
1.13
1.03
Ash, %
1.10
1.11
NFE, %
2.28
3.24
Total pigment, mg/gm
2.30
4.10
Myoglobin, mg/gm
1.50
2.50
Cholesterol, mg/100gm
54.8
64.0
Source: Banerjee 1983




Draught power

As indicated earlier there is a definite trend in Pakistan to rear male cow calves particularly those of draft breeds for work and female buffalo calves for milk production. On the whole the buffalo males are somewhat sluggish and are incapable of doing hard work continuously in summer during hot parts of the day because of poorer heat regulation mechanism. However, during winter months and cooler parts of the day, they are as good as the bullocks and quite often work side by side with them in pulling carts or ploughing fields.

Other things being equal an average bull has more traction power, is more sure footed, is better suited for work in rice fields and swampy areas, has greater stamina under favorable weather conditions and is more docile. A well built healthy buffalo bull can pull as much load in a two wheeled cart as a pair of average bullocks. Long two wheeled carts drawn by one buffalo bull are quite common in the cities of NWFP and the Punjab. The buffaloes possess strong large feet, strong legs and powerful quarters, which enable them to maintain balanced traction and overcome the opposing forces of ploughing in hard soil, sticky mud or pulling heavy loads in low land rice field. An average pair of buffalo bulls can haul 2-2 ½ tons of load in a cart fitted with peren numatic tyres over a distance of about 20 miles working 6-8 hrs a day.

The buffalo males are particularly useful for steady work in Persian wheel, oil expellers, and threshing of harvested crops. They are so trained, that they work automatically. They have broad backs and can carry an 8-10 mounds of load as pack animals over 25-30 miles working for 8-10 hrs a day. The average speed is 3 miles an hour. Buffaloes as a draft animal, has working capacity of 0.75 HP. In hot humid weather it is necessary to let working buffaloes cool off preferably by wallowing.

Other products

Horns
When the horns are properly handled and processed, they provide a variety of practical and decorative articles including buttons, toggles, combs, spoons, forks, knife handles, napkin rings, wall decoration, shoes, horns, etc.

Hides
The hide of water buffalo is an important item both for export and for local industry. Pakistan is one of the world's largest producers of good quality hides and skins, and about a million water buffaloes are slaughtered annually. Leather is considered to be the most important raw material in the country's economy.

Faeces
Tremendously used as fuel and organic fertilizer by the rural people.

Hairs
Buffalo hairs are twice as thick as those of the bovine breeds, which render them suitable for brush production rather than felt.



Problems
Buffaloes have the potential to produce more but certain mal-practices are deteriorating their potential day by day. The use of oxytocin for milk let down and BST to increase milk production is a common practice all over the country particularly in Landhi colony, Karachi, resulting the animals to become infertile. Such animals fail to conceive and are sold to the butchers. In this way hundreds of elite buffaloes are slaughtered each year (Bilal et al 2005). The high incidence of mastitis in buffaloes is also one of the major contributory factors towards lower productivity. The longer teats of this species and habit to sit in dirty muddy places along with milking with folded thumb and use of calf for milk let down increases the risk of mastitis (Bilal et al 2004)

Another set back to the buffalo is the illegal shift to the neighboring countries to cash the highest prices. Keeping in view the above facts, it is very easy to understand the negative growth rate in buffalo population.

Buffalo silent heat is the major limiting factor of the buffalo milk production. A reasonable number of the buffalo fail to conceive due to silent heat. Buffalo comes in heat mostly in hard summer season while the animal is already in stress due to heat. Buffalo due to its black color is more sensitive to the heat than the indigenous cattle of the country. Therefore sound and research oriented steps may be taken to minimize the non producing portion of the buffalo population.

Dairy animals of Pakistan particularly buffaloes are severely deficient in feed and fodders, resulting in low production as compared to actual potential.

At national level a very few farmers are adopting the recommended management packages and most are followers of traditions.

Despite of all efforts against buffaloes from the policy maker's side, the buffalo continues to gain popularity. The buffalo was discriminated against due to her late age at first calving, long calving interval and some breeding problems. Actually, this state of affairs reflects on the professional incompetence and can be surmounted through professional competence and research.. As mentioned earlier, the potential of buffalo could not be exploited due to certain personal biases against the species. There has been deterioration rather than improvement of the stock due to indiscriminate breeding without considering the genetic merit of animals, particularly that of buffalo bulls.

In the absence of systematic milk recording in the country, the selection of animals particularly that of males has never been possible on scientific basis at the farmer's level. Even at the organized farms, the selection of males is based on pedigree and type, and also from high yielding buffaloes and cows. The bulls have never been assessed for their breeding values on the performance of their daughters. Along with certain other factors, the selection of bulls merely on the basis of pedigree and type has also been speculated for this impaired situation. Such bulls are in widespread use for artificial insemination in this country.



Suggestions
To obtain improvement in the productivity of buffaloes following line of action is suggested.
  • Genetic parameters like genetic variation, heritability, repeatability, genetic correlation, should be worked out by using biometrical techniques. Elaborate genetic studies on buffaloes specifically of Nili-Ravi breed are scanty. This would provide basic information for adopting methods of selection for genetic improvement.
  • Systematic milk recording is a pre-requisite for progeny testing and to evaluate the achievements made through artificial insemination services.
  • Milk recording practices are inevitable but cannot be undertaken without formulation of Dairy Herd Improvement Association on co-operative basis.
  • Progeny testing and evaluation of sire is a must for break through in dairy industry. Elaborate programs for proving sires would provide opportunity for widespread use of quality sires thus used for upgrading the non-descript and low yielding buffaloes. The breeding values of sires and their evaluation according to their worth could be worked by determining their predicted difference. The Predicted Difference (PD) is the difference between daughter average and the herdmate average and is the best technique for evaluation and ranking sires. It would take from 5 to 10 years in getting quite a few proven sires if extensive artificial insemination services are available. When the availability of semen from proven sires is assured, at least in certain areas, artificial insemination services made available to the farmers without any problem, and the castration of all potent non-descript males in such areas would be more feasible practice. This will minimize the chance of entry of detrimental genes in the herds. It may be mentioned that these castrated calves would show a better growth rate, and produce good quality beef. This in turn will add substantially to the income of the farmer.
  • The existing artificial insemination services need to be strengthened further. This would help in eliminating low fertility and scrub bulls and will accelerate the pace of the genetic improvement of buffaloes. Needless to mention the significance of semen storage and transportation facilities at all artificial insemination centers.
  • Research has clearly shown that balanced feeding would reduce the age at first calving. It is hoped that with selection and feeding, age at first calving could be reduced to about 30 months in buffaloes. Also, vaccination for brucellosis and such other diseases at appropriate timings would reduce the chances of contagious abortion so common in Pakistan.

  • Growing high yielding fodder varieties and following improved agronomic practices should increase the production of green fodder. Most of our farmers are still practicing the conventional feeding practices. The animal herders at village level should be made aware to use urea and molasses with roughages to improve the production of their animals.
  • There is a need for establishing modern milk processing and packaging facilities based on advanced technology to convert abundantly available raw milk ( surplus in winter specially) into high value added dairy products.
  • The other field, which needs special attention of the policy makers, is to improve and extend livestock extension services to village level effectively. Again, due to scattered livestock herders in the villages, they should be organized in specific areas on community participation approach basis



References

  • Banerjee G C 1983 A textbook of animal husbandry. New Delhi.
  • Bilal M Q 2004 Dairy Farming. Zarai Digest Publications University of Agriculture, Faisalabad Pakistan.
  • Bilal M Q and Ahmad A 2004 Dairy hygiene and disease prevention Usman and Bilal printing linkers, Faisalabad.
  • Bilal M Q and M S Sajid 2005 Meeting milk demand (The only way is to modernize dairy farming). The Nation, May 29, 2005: P-26
  • Bilal M Q, Sajid M S and Iqbal M U 2005a Controlling mastitis in milch animals. Dawn October 2, P. III
  • Bilal M Q, Sajid M S and Iqbal M U 2005b Debate whether oxytocin is dangerous for dairy animals and human health. The Nation October 16: 26
  • Bilal M Q, Iqbal M U, Muhammad G, Avais M and Sajid M S 2004 Factors affecting the prevalence of clinical mastitis in buffaloes around Faisalabad district (Pakistan). International Journal of Biology 6 (1): 185-187.
  • Chantalakhana C 2001 Urgent need in buffalo development for food security and self-sufficiency. Proceedings of the National Workshop on Swamp Buffalo Development, 17-18 December 2001, pp. 1-10. Hanoi, Vietnam.http://www.mekarn.org/procbuf/chan.htm
  • Cockrill W R 1994 Present and future of buffalo production in the world. Proceedings of the Fifth World Buffalo Congress, 27-30 June, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
  • Eckles C H, Willes B C and Harold M 2001 Milk and milk products. New Dehli.
  • Economic survey of Pakistan 2004-05 Planning division Pakistan, Islamabad.
  • FAO 2000 Water Buffalo: an Asset Undervalued, pp.1-6. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand. http://www.aphca.org/publications/files/w_buffalo.pdf
  • FAOSTAT 2003 FAOSTAT Agriculture Data. Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics, Rome, Italy.
  • FAOSTAT 2005 FAOSTAT Agriculture Data. Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics, Rome, Italy. http://faostat.fao.org/default.aspx
  • Haq A 2000 Dairy Farming. LPRI Bahadarnagar, Okara.
  • Salerno A 1984 Meat Production from buffaloes reared in Italy. Aggarvali Facultade Agricultura, Universita de Bari.6:51-91 (Italian)
  • Sebastian L, Mudgal V D, Nair P G 1970 Comparative efficiency of milk production by Sahiwalcattle and Murrah buffalo. Journal of Animal Science30, 253-256.
  • Shah S I 1994 A textbook of animal husbandry.National Book Foundation, Islamabad.
  • Thu N V, Dong N T K, Preston T R, Pearson R A 1995 Exploring Approaches to Research in Animal Sciences in Vietnam, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research ACIAR) proceedings no 68, p. 216. ACIAR, Hue, Vietnam.
  • Younas M, Yaqoob M. 2002 Rural Livestock Production in Pakistan. Report from Department of Livestock Management, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.




Department of Livestock Management, University of Agriculture-38040 Faisalabad, Pakistan
Livestockmanagement2005@yahoo.com

Received 31 May 2006; Accepted 21 July 2006; Published 13 September 2006

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